(b) imperator hodie in amphitheatrum veniet. (c) Antonius epistulam ad Cleopatram misit. (d) orationes validiores quam arma sunt. (e) consilium a senatoribus audietur. 3 Translate into Latin: (a) She said that she wanted to go to Rome. (b) Julius said that his mother would prepare the dinner. (c) ghd hair straighteners uk Clodius said he was a friend of Cicero. (d) The slaves told the soldiers that Cicero was in Greece. (e) The soldiers reported Cicero’s absence to Antony (say…that Cicero was absent). 4 What are the initials n.b., e.g. and p.s. short for? 5 Identify Latin words which are etymologically linked to: library,T3 Hair Straightener, computer, current, rodent and quality. 124 13 CHRISTIANITY Gerunds An English gerund is a noun that is formed from a verb, and ends ‘-ing’. English participles are spelt the same, but they are adjectives: I do not like flying (gerund/noun) flying into a rage, he broke the teapot (participle/adjective) The Latin gerund is a neuter singular noun formed from a verb, e.g. parandum (preparing), videndum (seeing). It is not used in the nominative—instead the Romans used cheap ghd straighteners the infinitive: e.g. videre est credere to see is to believe/seeing is believing In other cases, the gerund is used: e.g. videndo credimus by seeing we believe servus est ad laborandum aptus the slave is fit for working The gerund is similar to the gerundive (see Chapter 11) except that the gerund is active, and not an adjective but a noun: acc. videndum seeing gen. vidend.. of seeing dat. vidend.. for seeing abl. vidend.. by seeing A gerund is sometimes used in place of a gerundive: Gerundive: Romae videndae causa venimus we came for the sake of Rome-to-be-seen Gerund: Romam videndi causa venimus we came for the sake of seeing Rome 126 ESSENTIAL LATIN 1 servus est aptus ad… Note that a gerundive is passive and an adjective, while a gerund is active and a noun. Practice With the gerunds from fugio-ere, laboro-are, pugno-are and bibo-ere, complete each sentence and translate: se, ipse se is a reflexive pronoun (i.e. refers pink hair straighteners to the subject of the sentence, but is never the subject itself: se has no nominative). It can mean him(self), her(self), it(self) or them(selves). ipse is an emphatic form of is, ea, id and means self: e.g. Caesar ipse dixit Caesar sibi dixit Caesar himself spoke Caesar spoke to himself For the endings of se and ipse, see pp. 147–148. A leopard print ghds new age Rome was tolerant of the many different religions practised in the empire, and persecution was rare. In Britain the druids were attacked because they encouraged rebellion and indulged in human sacrifices, often ghd hair of Roman captives. If a religion was focal to rebellion, then worshippers could expect rough treatment. In the case of the Christians the perceived threat arose from their refusal to practise any rituals other than their own, which gave the impression that they were rejecting the authority of the state. Roman officials and priests were civic magistrates, and the public rituals they supervised were performed for the well-being of the state. Any reluctance to recognise this formal religion was seen by some to be bordering on insurrection, a resentment that wasn’t eased by the cult’s existence on the fringe of respectable society. The Christians’ 13 CHRISTIANITY 127 2 servus est aptus ad 3 miles est aptus ad… preference for the fellowship of sinners and no-hopers irritated many, and for some their ideological inflexibility was disturbing. Despite intermittent opposition and persecution, the Christian faith established itself in the capital and spread throughout the empire. The gospels were translated into Latin, and their message that hardship in this world would win a foothold in the next brought comfort to thousands of poorer people across Europe. Here was ghd sale something they had seldom glimpsed—a sense of hope. Stoicism had attracted those who had something to lose, and reminded them that they might just lose it. The poor had too little to start with, and were consoled by the promise of salvation in the next world for those who suffered in this one. Christians even welcomed suffering, going out ghd hair straightener price of their way to be poor, abstemious and in some cases martyred. Suffering was not divinely caused, but certainly increased the chances of salvation. This was bewildering to pagans, who believed that gods were responsible for human suffering, either to punish mortal error and disrespect, or merely to give vent to their whimsical and unpredictable natures—according to the ancients, the source of undeserved misfortune. Christianity didn’t remain for ever the religion of the poor. In due course, a number of rich and powerful people were converted, including, in the fourth century, emperors themselves; and differences—literary, intellectual and political—between Christians and pagans continued to surface thro ghd hair dryer ughout the later years of the empire. One such quarrel concerned the appropriateness of classical literature. Many Christians thought it shouldn’t be read—most were unable to read it in any case. Even educated converts, like Augustine and 128 ESSENTIAL LATIN 4 miles est aptus ad…. Jerome, were conscious of their new loyalty, and joined in the rejection of the classics. The pleasure of reading these books gave educated Christians an opportunity for self-denial: Jerome felt guilty because he was tempted by the books of Cicero (p. 140). Poets such as Virgil and Ovid had always been held in high regard, but now the content of their stories were censured for the amoral—and immoral—antics of the gods. Polytheism was considered not only blasphemous but ridiculous: Augustine (p. 126) wondered why there had to be one spirit for the doorway, one for the door and yet another for its hinge. However, their quarrel wasn’t really with the books,ghd IV Styler, but with the pagans who up leopard print ghd held them, and after this opposition had receded, classical works became acceptable to churchmen as allegorical tales. Before long, the full circle had turned, with the early monasteries playing an important role in the survival of classical literature. The new religion gave a fresh stimulus to intellectual life. In an era when the reworking of classical thought had grown ever more slavish, Christianity posed new questions for intellectuals to ponder, not least the concept and identity of God. ghd iv straighteners A pagan divinity was identified with the phenomenon which it represented. Light, for example, was a mystery to pagans,GHD Precious Gift Set straighteners - ENGINEERING, and they explained it in terms of a sun-god. Christians now inverted the formula: God was the mystery, light the metaphorical representation. To frame this new and complex theology, intellectuals borrowed ideas from previous philosophers. Plato’s theory of forms, which begins (or ends) with corporeal images and leads to the absolute form from which all things are derived, inspired a number of Christian intellectuals, who became known as the Neoplatonists. The political momentum of Christianity overcame paganism and, some would say, the empire too. A distinctive characteristic of Roman administration was essentially a Greek idea which the Romans had put into wider practice: the partially autonomous municipality. In towns all over the empire local magistrates were elected to supervise local affairs, including a portion of the taxes. ghd sale In later years corruption, mismanagement and insecurity in the face of barbarian immigration from the east prompted central government to replace local elections with magistrates of their own choosing, who were obliged to collect the taxes for central government to spend. The ensuing vacuum in popular representation was filled by the leaders of the Church, who soon earned more favour than the magistrates: bishops were infinitely preferable to bailiffs. In this way the church replaced the forum as the centre of local affairs, and the self-administered towns began to disappear. It wasn’t very long, of course, before the bishop became the bailiff too, sharing power with a local lord in a manner that underpinned the political structure of the medieval era to follow. 13 CHRISTIANITY 129 The growth of Christianity was certainly a symptom of the fall of the empire. Whether or not it was one of the causes remains a bone of contention between humanists and the Church, neither of whom are consistently capable of a dispassionate view. In our attempts to trace the causes of decline, we sometimes overlook how long the empire survived before it finally submitted to old age. In any case, it is cheap ghds doubtful whether any single factor was solely responsible for an inevitable end, which occurred for a var ghd pure iety of internal and external reasons, arguably over some hundreds of years. Rome may not have been built in a day; she did not disappear in one either. 1 Christianity did not allow the worship of any other gods. Since the emperor himself had divine status, this was a difficulty which the enemies of Christ tried to exploit. (The chief priests) miserunt insidiatores qui se iustos simularent, ut caperent eum in sermone, et traderent illum principatui et potestati praesidis. et interrogaverunt illum, dicentes: ‘magister, scimus quia recte dicis et doces: licet nobis dare tributum Caesari, an non?’ considerans autem dolum illorum, dixit ad eos: ‘quid me temptatis? ostendite mihi denarium: cuius habet imaginem et inscriptionem?’ respondentes dixerunt: ‘Caesaris.’ et ait illis: ‘reddite ergo quae Caesaris sunt,cheap-ghd-sale GHD IV Styler Red Lust Artiklar, Caesari: et quae Dei sunt, Deo.’ et